A Comparison of Two Short Stories Essay

Once† and analyze the ways in which each conveys the symbols of â€Å"The Journey†. A Journey Is defined as a â€Å"passage or progress from one stage to another: the journey to success† (Dictionary. om online dictionary, n. d. ). These two stories allows you to place yourself in the characters shoes to see and feel the story that is being old through the character eyes as you watch It unfold. The Journey that Is being told by Jean Rhys Is definitely one that can be related to by anyone that has made a visit to their childhood home minus the death. It is also easy to relate to Frost’s character because I have been at several crossroads in my life and have often chosen the road less taken, which has yielded great and not so great outcomes. These writings are obviously taking place outside on a road, indicating that a Journey Is In the works. Although both stories use imagery and symbolism, they are extremely different in heir message. Rhys’ story uses imagery to help detail the spiritual Journey ofa woman whose reality comes to a very climactic ending when she realizes that she is no longer alive. Frost’s story regales us with his version of Imagery In which his character learns that It’s not always important which road you take; as long as you choose one, you will experience the life that come with it. The character is trying to let us know that it is very easy to make a life-changing decision based on an outer something that was not known to the characters before the Journey began. As each f these stories develops, the characters do not portray the same mindset towards their paths. In both poetry and short stories, a theme is intended and conveyed through the author’s works. Literary elements such as rhythm, rhyme, and tone differentiate poems from short stories and dramatic works. However, there are some similarities between short stories and poetry which include fgures of speech, settings, foreshadowing and conflict. These allow the reader to connect to the author and their works. Settings are important because it depicts â€Å"the time or place in which fictional events occur. It puts boundaries around the action and defines the environment in which conflicts can be witnessed and character development observed. Setting may also have a social dimension in which particular local customs, dress, or speech provide a framework for understanding the characters and their interactions† (Clugston, 2010). The one major similarity between these two works is the absence ofa plot. Our text defines a plot as â€Å"a dynamic element in fiction, a sequence of interrelated, conflicting actions and events that typically build toa climax and bring about a resolution† (Clugston, 2010). Poems are written utilizing verses or stanzas which cause the reader to experience an emotion. Short stories on the other hand are fictional writings that details cause and effect and it is shorter than a novel. â€Å"The Road Not Taken† has four stanzas of five lines in which a rhyme scheme is taking place, syllables are being emphasized or stressed and it utilizes iambic tetrameter instead of pentameter. Tetrameter is define as â€Å"a line consisting of four dipodies in trochaic, iambic, or anapestic meter; a verse of four feet† (Dictionary. com online dictionary, n. d. ). There is absolutely no climax in â€Å"The Road Not Taken†, as the characters only decision is which road to take. Steppe states, â€Å"In the poem there is a man who has come toa crossroad in his life. One path is traveled on frequently while the other path is not. He has to make a decision as to what path he should take. No matter what, he knows that he cannot turn back once he has made the choice, but it is implied† (â€Å"Symbolism†, 2011). He chose the road that was traveled the least and it was the perfect decision for him. According to Clugston, a symbol is â€Å"a word picture that presents an object, person, r action that conveys two meanings: Its own literal meaning and something it stands for as well† (Clugston, 2010, Ch. 2. 3, Para. 10). In I Used To Live Here Once (1976) Jean Rhys details a woman’s return to a place she called home in which the story is being told through her eyes as she gives vivid details of subtle and not so subtle changes of her surroundings in which you can visualize the sentiment she has for the place. The point of view for this short story is limited third person omniscient, and according to Clugston (2010), it is defined as â€Å"a point of view when the thoughts and eelings of only one of the characters are related to the narrator† (Ch. 5. 2, Para. 3). If the author had used a different point of view and had not provided the reader with the very intimate and thoughts of the character, the symbolism would have been lost or too abundant, that some key points to the story would have been missed. The point of view in The Road Not Taken is first-person-point-of-view, which â€Å"occurs when the narrator describes his or her personal action and thoughts as a participant in the Rhys’ story begins with her character standing by a river looking at the stepping tones and remembering the details about each of them (Clugston, 2010). Each stones description could represent a time in her life in which she was faced with easy and difficult situations in which choices were made, whether good or bad. â€Å"The next one wasn’t so safe for when the river was full the water flowed over it and even when it showed dry it was slippery’ (Clugston, 2010).

Forced distribution system

Though many researchers have pointed out several drawbacks in FADS, due to the absence of any suitable alternative, it has been (and continues to be) adopted by many industries over a long period of time. The purpose of this paper Is to point out some serious limitations of this system and propose a simple modification to overcome these limitations. Design/ methodology/approach – FADS determines the relative positions of the employees involved in similar work by comparing them against one another, and based on their performance, the employees receive different grades.Here the authors use the Likelier scaling method to convert these grades into numerical scores, then these scores are used to estimate the average performance of each group of employees, which Is referred to as the group Index. Taking these group Indices Into consideration, the authors propose a modeled performance score of each employee for their final evaluation. Efficiencies of the existing FADS and the propose d modified version are compared using a simple measure of rank correlation known as the Sandal's taut-statistic.Findings – Extensive simulation studies show that the modified algorithm is uniformly better than the existing one over different schemes for allocations of employees to deferent projects, and depending on the allocation scheme, It can lead to substantial Improvement. Relationally/value – This paper can be appraisal system based on a forced distribution and the first that provides a simple but effective solution which can be adopted by the organizations using FADS for performance appraisal.Keywords Performance appraisal, Statistical methods, Human resource management Paper type Research paper 1 Introduction Performance evaluation is regarded as one of the most powerful human resource raciest (Judges and Ferris, 1993; Murphy and Cleveland, 1995, p. 4). It provides a justification for human resource decision such as rewards, career planning, transfers, training , counseling, mentoring, termination, etc.Performance appraisal provides the employer an opportunity to communicate with the employees about the mission, strategy, vision, values and objectives of the organization, and it personalizes organizational strategy into individual performance criteria. It has been observed that employee motivations to perform, to develop capabilities and to improve future reference are influenced by the performance appraisal system (Land et al. , 1978; The authors thank the anonymous reviewer for providing several helpful comments and suggestions that led to substantial improvement of the article.Despite the importance of a performance evaluation system, extensive studies in this field have identified significant shortcomings in its applications that include different types of biases stemming from rating errors, sources of performance information and individual differences (Arrive and Murphy, 1998). Among these various shortcomings, rating bias is the most predominant area of research, which indicates the tendency of the raters to provide lenient or stringent rating (Beret et al. 992; Runes et al. , 2002). This systematic bias leads to lack of discrimination between high and low performance and automatically disrupts the whole essence of performance decades, several researchers have explored different methods to overcome the rating bias and to improve the accuracy of performance evaluation system (Goff et al. , 1996). Studies on performance evaluation are mainly focused on two types of appraisal systems – absolute and relative.In an absolute rating system, individual performance is evaluated against a pre-determined standard, whereas a relative evaluation yester determines the relative positions of different employees by comparing them against one another (Duffy and Webber, 1974). Though there are advantages and disadvantages in both of these systems, some studies have pointed out the superiority of the relative grading system over the absolute one (He-man, 1986; Nathan and Alexander, 1988; Wander and Goofing, 1997).Many renowned organizations including General Electric (GE), Hen, Microsoft, American Express and Goldman Cash have used and some still use relative grading system for performance evaluation in the form of a forced distribution system (FADS) (Grotto, 2005). FADS was developed in an attempt to directly deal with the problems of rater leniency and lack of discrimination while measuring an individual's performance (McCarty, 1988).This system forces the managers to discriminate between high and low performers either by sorting the employees into some pre-determined performance categories based on a pre-defined distribution or by ranking them on the basis of their relative performance (Gurgling et al. , 2004). The first process is also known as the criterion-reference rating, while the second one is known as the norm- reference rating (Visionary and Ones, 2000; Visionary, 2001).The wide use of FAD S as an objective measure of employee performance was mostly popularized by Jack Welch at the beginning of his tenure at GE under the name of â€Å"vitality curve† (Bossily and Charka, 2002; Itchy and Sherman, 2001). Welch introduced this system to develop an objective measure to discriminate between high and low performer so that the culture of â€Å"rewarding doers† can be established, which in turn can be helpful for â€Å"building muscle† of the organization. In GE and many other organizations, FADS is considered as a developmental instrument for achieving a performance-oriented culture.Though FADS has several advantages, many organizations have been observed to perceive this system negatively (Rock et al. , 2007). Many researchers and practitioners have also pointed out that a forced distribution in performance evaluation leads to extreme level of Job dissatisfaction among the employees with high potential to perform (Gray, 2002; Madman, 2006; Prefer and Su tton, 2006). In practice, a relatively low-performing member in a high- performing team can often be better than the best performer in an average performing team.The FADS is used to evaluate the members working in different roofs or teams separately, and the rigidity of this system forces the companies to reprimand all low performers of each and every group. As a result, some high-potential performers may be asked to leave the Job or they may leave the organization voluntarily due to dissatisfaction. The negative consequences of this performance evaluation system have been observed in many organizations. For instance, Ford had a well-publicized unsuccessful experience with a forced ranking support this ranking system at all.Many employees, who had received positive feedback for years, were suddenly categorized as under performers. As a result, dozens of Ford employees and ex-employees sued the company because of this system of evaluation. Vishnu et al. (2006) studied the long-term e ffect of the â€Å"bell curve†, which is a form of forced distribution, on organizational dynamics. According to their views, pressure of the bell curve can facilitate the performance to a certain level, but constant pressure demoralizes the employees. As the company shrinks, the rigid distribution of the bell curve forces the manager to categorize a high performer as a mediocre one.Also, it is often assumed that the employees identified as low reformers, on account of their unsatisfactory performance, are usually replaced every year by fresh talent, who can add up to the output of the organization. Here we may argue that the likelihood of the presence of poor performers amongst these new additions is another possibility, which can adversely affect the system. Moreover, from the financial point of view, replacement of the employees with the fresh talent is also a costly affair. Blame et al. 2009) conducted a study on a student population to understand their reactions towards different types of FADS, and pointed out that â€Å"less trending consequences for low performer† is the most powerful variable in determining the attractions towards different types of FADS. On the basis of this study, we may assume that the organization, where stringency is higher for the low performers, has less chance to get higher number of Job applicants. In order to overcome these limitations of the forced ranking appraisal system and to protect the employees with high potential, Vishnu et al. 2006) proposed to use an evaluation system based on the semi-bell curve, where instead of putting fixed proportions of employees into different groups of performance levels, an organization adjusts these proportions depending on the set of employees it is dealing with. However, the adjustment scheme they proposed was subjective and somewhat ad hoc. Instead of using the semi-bell curve, an organization can use any other curves as well, or it can even use different curves for diffe rent set of workers involved in different projects. It depends entirely on the company policy, and we have no prerogative to decide that.So, in this paper, we do not recommend the use of any particular curve. Here, we repose a modified algorithm for forced ranking performance appraisal that can be used irrespective of the nature of the curve(s) used by the companies for the evaluation of their employees. In the following sections, we assume the bell curve appraisal system for the demonstration of our method. However, the description of our method will make it clear that our modification is not limited to the bell curve system, and it can even be used when a company adopts different types of curves or distributions for evaluation of its employees involved in different projects. . Objectives of the study The main objectives of our study are given below: evaluation of the present appraisal system under different schemes of allocation of workers and identifying the limitations of the fo rced ranking appraisal system; propose a new method for performance appraisal to overcome these limitations; and extensive comparison between the proposed and the existing method of performance appraisal to demonstrate the usefulness of the proposed method. The next three sections address each of these objectives in turn. . Evaluation of the forced ranking performance appraisal system First, we carry out emulation studies to evaluate the performance of the existing forced ranking appraisal system. Let us consider an organization with 3,000 employees. Suppose that there are 30 projects run by the organization, and 100 employees are involved in each of these projects. For the time being, we assume that the potentials of these employees are known and they perform according to their potentials.We generate 3,000 observations from a normal distribution with mean 50 and standard deviation 10 (so that almost observation lie in the (O, 100) range) and consider them as true potentials of diff erent employees. Here we consider two different allocation schemes for assigning the employees to different projects, and we will refer to them as random allocation and extreme allocation, respectively. In random allocation, the employees are randomly assigned to different projects. In extreme allocation, employees having similar potentials are assigned to the same project.For instance, the 100 employees having the highest potentials are assigned to one project, the next 100 employees to another project and so on. In each of these two cases, we evaluate the performance of the employees involved in each project, and the grades are located to them following the bell curve system. Assume that the organization uses six different Grades A (best)-F (worst) for its employees, and in the bell curve system, the proportions of employees to receive these grades are PA h if h 1?F(2), BP h PEP h F(2)?F(1) and PC h PDP h F(1)?O. , where ? ) is the cumulative distribution function of a standard no rmal variant ( Johnson et al. , 1995). Now, one may be curious to know how FADS perform in such situations. In order to investigate this, we compute the correlation coefficient between the potentials of the employees and the grades obtained by them and use it as a measure of efficiency of the appraisal system. Same grade, we use the Sandal's t-statistic (Kendall, 1938) as an appropriate measure of correlation.Note that unlike the product moment correlation coefficient, this statistic is invariant under any monotonically increasing transformation. So, instead of normal distribution, if we generate 3,000 observations from any other distribution, the efficiency measure based on the Sandal's t-statistic will remain the same. In the case of random allocation, the existing method performed quite well, and it led to a rank correlation of 0. 716. But in the case of extreme allocation, it had drastically poor performance.The rank correlation turned out to be 0. 024. So, essentially there was no correlation between the potentials of the employees and the grades obtained by them, and the forced ranking system was as bad as random grading. Note that random allocation of workers to different projects is presumed rare in practice. Usually the employees are assigned to different projects based on their expertise, and also depending on the difficulty level of the project.Therefore, it is not so rare that the employees having higher potentials are assigned to high-end projects, and hose having relatively lower potentials are assigned to low-end projects. In such cases, the existing performance appraisal system will perform poorly, and as a result some of the high (low) potential workers will get lower (higher) grades. Being unsatisfied with the grading, some of these high-potential workers may lose motivation to work hard and some of them may leave the organization for a new Job.This is quite harmful for organizational functioning. In practice, in many cases, the allocation of the workers in an organization is somewhere between the totally random allocation and the extreme allocation. From the above discussion, it is quite transparent that in such cases, the existing appraisal system may only have a moderate performance depending on the extremity of the allocation scheme. This clearly shows the necessity to develop a new method for performance appraisal, which can have satisfactory performance even in the case of extreme allocation.We develop one such method in the next section. 4. Modification to the forced ranking performance appraisal system: a new method for performance appraisal The existing method of performance appraisal simply considers the present year's elating performance of the employees involved in the same project, and the grades are allocated to them only based on their present performance. Because of this relative grading, an employee in a high-performing team can get poor grades in spite of performing better than all other members in an average performing team.In order to overcome this limitation, here we take the previous year's grades of the employees into consideration. Suppose that there are n employees working in a particular project, and Gig is the grade obtained by the tit employee (I h 1, 2, y, n) in the previous year's appraisal. In order to develop a modified appraisal system, we assume that the individual performance of the employees may vary from their previous year's performance, but the average performance of these n employees remains almost the same. For computing this average performance, we follow the Likelier, (1932) scaling method.It is a statistical tool that converts the Grades Gig into numerical scores s(Gig) and makes it possible to calculate the mean score I h for this group of employees. Though here we assume that the performance evaluation is done once in a year, this method can be used when the evaluation cycle has shorter or larger eroticism or even when it is periodic. Let us assume tha t a company uses a total of K Grades AAA, AAA, y, AK in the appraisal system, where AAA and AK denote the highest and the lowest grades, respectively.Also assume that it puts the best performing Pl proportion of employees in AAA, the next up proportion in AAA and so on. Therefore, the worst performing PC proportion (here Pl up pep PC h 1) of employees receive the Grade AK. So, if we assume that the performance of the employees are normally distributed (this is the assumption the companies made when they adopt the bell curve system), the mean of a truncated tankard normal distribution with truncation at and above the (1 ?up)the quintile of the standard normal distribution can be used as the score function for AAA .

Case note on the decision of the Supreme Court in Autoclenz v Belcher Essay

Case note on the decision of the Supreme Court in Autoclenz v Belcher [2011] - Essay Example It sought to establish the actual employment context between the concerned parties as well as the legitimacy of the written term. In this case, the main question to attend to was as to whether the claimants were actually workers, by taking into consideration the already existing regulations such as the 1998 working time regulation (WTR) and the 1999 national minimum wage regulation (NMWR). The decision offered by this court confirms that a lot of consideration should be given to what exactly was the agreement between the concerned parties alongside a written contract terms2. This does not only imply that an employment tribunal (ET) should only consider the terms written at the commencement of the contract, but also at any subsequent phase which might have altered the terms of the contract. Moreover, ET does not need to be confronted by an evidence or intention of third party deceit for it to search beyond an agreement’s written terms. According to the court, the decision does not change in any way employment laws in any way since rationality is allowed in cases that call for it. Background to the case Autoclenz (appellant) is an organization that participates in the provision of car-cleaning services to both auctioneers and motor retailers. On the other hand, the claimants (respondents) consist of 20 valeter individuals who offered their services to Autoclenz as car valeters. All these valeters signed a contract at the begging with Autoclenz which stated that they were self-employed hence their taxation will be based on that3. However, later in 2007, the claimants were subjected to new contracts by Autoclenz which they were required to sign. The new contract had two main clauses: The first clause allowed the valeters to engage another individual to perform services on their behalf as long as that individual met Autoclenz employment standards. Secondly, by handing over responsibilities to another person, that particular individual’s services will n o longer be needed by Autoclenz. There was also a clause that accorded the veleters a right to work refusal. Moreover, the veleters were to give their absence notification in advance4. The claimants later placed a case at the employment tribunal seeking to be recognized as workers considering the definition of a worker by the WTR and MNWR. Basing on these two employment regulations, they also claimed that their remuneration should be in harmony with the NMWR. On the contrary, these claims seemed to be inconsistent with what the written terms of the contract depicted5. Autoclenz considered the valeters to be self-employed individuals who were not in a position to claim the statutory benefits of an actual employee. The two mentioned regulations look at worker from an identical ground as a person who works under: An employment contract. Or other contracts (implied or express). At first the ET held a stand that the veleters can be taken to be workers as well as employees, since Autoclen z exercised much control over them and they were completely in the business6. Furthermore, all the veleters seemed to have no idea of the substitution clause and for the fact that no one of them had participated in it. However, later the EAT giving the saga a different approach argued that since no clauses whether those of substitution or obligation can be inconsistent with employment contracts or personal performance contracts according to the law, then using the written agreement, the valeters were workers but not employees7. Finally, the Court of Appeal settled on the ET’s decision that considered the valeters as being both workers and employees. Main issue and judgment The main issue in this case was for the Supreme Court to establish whether there is a dispute over what is

The argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

The argument - Essay Example On the one hand, it is rather necessary to consider increasing the minimum age of a driving license holder from 16 to 17. This is because this action can significantly reduce the number of accidents in the roads. According to various researchers, numerous accidents are attributed by the young drivers on the roads. This is a clear indication that raising the minimum age of obtaining a driving license to 17 years would immensely lead to a reduction of the road accidents (Jacobs 29). In fact, the young drivers are usually inexperienced and under-developed cognitively hence, as teenagers they have a higher probability of being involved in automobile accidents. These young drivers should also be involved in more hours of practice with the licensed drivers in order to prevent the countless deaths that are caused by accidents. From a mathematical perspective, the raise in the minimum age would amount to less road users. This clearly asserts that the numerous road accidents will also be decreased substantially. According to various psychologists, the mindset of most young drivers is not fully mature until when the individual hits the 20’s. Thus, increasing the minimum age of the drivers can be considered as a vast step in improving road safety. Statistics assert that most of the road users in numerous countries are approximately ages 16 to 24 (Jacobs 32). The lack of experience and responsibility in this age group has led to a radical change in road transportation. This is because most of these individuals are faced with the dangers of reckless driving, drinking under the influence of drugs among other conditions. Most of the individuals in this age group are victims of drug abuse, which affects road safety. For example, when such individuals drive under the influence of drugs, there is a high probability that they can cause accidents. This endangers the lives of other innocent road users including the pedestrians and other motorists who

Identify the different Types of Charters available to contract a Assignment

Identify the different Types of Charters available to contract a vessel, and briefly explain the salient features of the different Types of Charters identified above - Assignment Example rouping of contract, a bare-boat charter, the vessel owner rents the intact platform, and the charterer has the liability of in service it as even though it were his possess ship. As the name entails, the bare ship is constricted. The vessel possessor has dispose of influence of the vessel in hold up of the phase together with this through the charter gathering.2 The charterer pays the intact operating expenditure petroleum, supplies, necessities, port dues, pilot age, and so on, as well as makes use of and pays the team. Though, there possibly will be a segment in the contract gathering that is the master and the leader engineer have to be accepted by means of the vessel proprietor. Party is an expected marine expression and is identical by means of agreement or contract. 3 Contract and charter are different kinds of agreement plan assignment choices which a supplier offers. User holds out vessel; user functions plan tasks. Unusually a second customer offers vessel; customers takes out suppliers teams program assignments and functions. Contractor performs plan assignments choices contractor offers. User performs vessel and functions plans missions it. Contractor achieves program turnkey.4 The charterer is accountable for the continuation, conservation, and security of the vessel. Previous to release to the charterer, the ship is inspected through representatives of mutually social gatherings and the similar is prepared on redelivery. The contracts parties’ will stipulate that the ship has to be redelivered in the similar high quality arrangement and situation as transported, by means of exemption of usual carry and shared. Contractor functions ship offers through customer choices and are differences by means of the particular differentiation bei ng that the customer, approximately entirely the centralized government, has offered the vessel. There are a number of varied reasons for this understanding. One is a end result of heaviness from office of management and

Two questions of us history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Two questions of us history - Essay Example The causes of Great Depression were more profound in that strong policies for dealing with global financial crisis were dubious in absence of authority. This means that the dominant economic supremacy, which have the global reserve currency and can offer liquidity and expanding demand were the main cause of the Great Depression. The collapse of the British hegemonic supremacy and the unwillingness of the US to step into hegemonic role vacated by the UK government were the deeper causes of Great Depression. The fiscal policy was not only the central measure for economic recovery, but also the historians argue that the New Deal implemented to control the crisis was even worse because it delayed the upturn (Perry 16). However, the research study of the New Keynesian policy that suggested fiscal policy argued that this policy contributed nothing to the restoration or economic recovery. This is because of the trade deficit; thus the new agenda were developed during the anti-New Deal agenda, which focused on the issue of precautions or measures for controlling economic crisis. The congress implemented diverse policies under the New Deal including fair Labor Standard policies, whereby child labor and new wage policies were implemented. The state government also implemented other policies including social security measures and unemployment compensation have been among the aspects put in place for solving economic crisis. One of the long lasting effects from WW2 is the shift of political or military power from Europe to the Soviet Union and the US government. The good thing is that the WW2 contributed to formation of treaties such as South East Asia Treaty, which was established for defense in Far East. Although the WW2 led to bad effects such as increased deaths, destruction of properties due mass bombing, the end of war led to significant transformation including countries gained

Hurricane Floyd Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Hurricane Floyd - Case Study Example Even the with the intervention of alternative emergencies from neighboring states, there is very little improvement because the evacuation systems in situ create constraints. The evacuation needs per individual on the instance of such ruinous event, as Floyd, is overwhelming for this low personnel-to-resident magnitude relation. On the fateful day of cyclone Floyd, the routes were slim and congestions were huge. The personnel were overcome by the quantity of needs per individual when Floyd attacked. With reference to the size of the county, the response to disaster that happens at the furthest distance from the agency location might not be handled with success because of low workers range. The area of coverage per personnel is such that the reaction time remains low despite early preparations. This could be worsened by inadequate instrumentality and transport for handling this kind of emergencies. The recent rise within the instances of hurricanes, storms and tornadoes give possible indication of increase of the level greenhouse gases within the atmosphere. It is believed that increase of the quantity of global warming within the troposphere – lower atmosphere, will increase warming in high altitudes. Heat waves and droughts became extremely predictable whereas weather specialists and scientists still have confidence in noncurrent short prediction for the hurricanes, storms and tornadoes, (Herring, 2000). Emergency response agencies are ill equipped because the historical account of prevalence of the storms, hurricanes and tornadoes offers a lower chance of the events happening. Charlotte County is found on Florida’s East coast and has not experienced landfall of a major storm since cyclone Agnes in 1972, 32 years before Charley. However, recently, it was hit by two hurricanes, Dennis and Floyd, which confirms the fears over the result of worldwide

International relations Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

International relations - Article Example This section uses realism theory to explain relationships among state and non-state actors in the international system. Realism is based on the idea that the international system exists according to the Hobbestian state of nature, which is anarchic and brutal. There is no centralized authority in the system. The influential states have powers that they use to subjugate the poor and powerless in the system. The paper evaluates three supranational regimes in order to understand the theory in detail. States agree to form governments that control internal affairs. It is not surprising that any sovereign state has the power to enforce and prescribe laws. These powers are limited in the international system because there is no Leviathan that controls the activities of all members. The manner in which African states and other developing countries conduct politics is a matter of great concern when it comes to the issue of classical realism. From liberalists’ point of view, the drives to power and will to dominate is based on liberty in which peoples’ freedom to determine the nature of politics is given priority in the society. According to Kenneth Waltz and Wendt, people are free to elect the leader they want. They are also at liberty to contribute to the government without restrictions. Neorealist focuses on the international system in which states are considered as the key actors. ... The difference between classical realism and neo-realism is based on how they view the causes of conflict in international relations. Classical realism view unchanging human nature and self-interest as the major causes of conflict in international relations while neo-realism consider state anarchy as the major cause of conflict in international relations (Harrison 89). Question 3: Persistent underdevelopment The dependency theory is utilized in international relations to predict dependency in third world countries. Dependency has been defined as a condition in which the growth and expansion of an economy is conditioned or determined by growth and expansion of another economy. This means that a dependent state cannot experience a self-sustaining development that is; it cannot be self-reliant because its economy is a reflection of the developed state’s economy. The process of dependency is sustained by foreign aid including technical assistance and military aid. The aid does not enhance the economy but it strengthens dependency relations. The aid further marginalizes the dependent countries since they create permanent debts. Marxists argue that neither mercantilism nor liberalism guarantee human happiness this is because the owners of the means of production control the markets whereas the state is the property of the elite. It therefore postulates that people should determine their own destiny through collectivization of interests (Allen and Thomas 69). Liberalism argues that politics and economics have no relationship whatsoever. The market according to liberalists is self-regulating because it operates on its internal logics. It claims that the market

Scientific Method Essay Example for Free

Scientific Method Essay The scientific method has four steps 1. Observation and description of a phenomenon. The observations are made visually or with the aid of scientific equipment. 2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon in the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation. 3. Test the hypothesis by analyzing the results of observations or by predicting and observing the existence of new phenomena that follow from the hypothesis. If experiments do not confirm the hypothesis, the hypothesis must be rejected or modified (Go back to Step 2). 4. Establish a theory based on repeated verification of the results. The subject of a scientific experiment has to be observable and reproducible. Observations may be made with the unaided eye, a microscope, a telescope, a voltmeter, or any other apparatus suitable for detecting the desired phenomenon. The invention of the telescope in 1608 made it possible for Galileo to discover the moons of Jupiter two years later. Other scientists confirmed Galileos observations and the course of astronomy was changed. However, some observations that were not able to withstand tests of objectivity were the canals of Mars reported by astronomer Percival Lowell. Lowell claimed to be able to see a network of canals in Mars that he attributed to intelligent life in that planet. Bigger telescopes and satellite missions to Mars failed to confirm the existence of canals. This was a case where the observations could not be independently verified or reproduced, and the hypothesis about intelligent life was unjustified by the observations. To Lowells credit, he predicted the existence of the planet Pluto in 1905 based on perturbations in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune. This was a good example of deductive logic. The application of the theory of gravitation to the known planets predicted that they should be in a different position from where they were. If the law of gravitation was not wrong, then something else had to account for the variation. Pluto was discovered 25 years later. Limitations of the Scientific Method Science has some well-known limitations. Science works by studying problems in isolation. This is very effective at getting good, approximate solutions. Problems outside these artificial boundaries are generally not addressed. The consistent, formal systems of symbols and mathematics used in science cannot prove all statements, and furthermore, they cannot prove all TRUE statements. Kurt Godel showed this in 1931. The limitations of formal logical systems make it necessary for scientists to discard their old systems of thought and introduce new ones occasionally. Newtons gravitational model works fairly well for everyday physical descriptions, but it is not able to account for many important observations. For this reason, it has been replaced by Einsteins general theory of relativity for most celestial phenomena. Instead of talking about gravity, we now are supposed to talk about the curvature of the four-dimensional time-space continuum. Scientific observations are also subject to physical limits that may prevent us from finding the ultimate truth. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to determine simultaneously the position and momentum of an elementary particle. So, if we know the location of a particle we cannot determine its velocity, and if we know its velocity we cannot determine its location. Jacob Bronowski wrote that nature is not a gigantic formalizable system because to formalize it we would have to make some assumptions that cut some of its parts from consideration, and having done that, we cannot have a system that embraces the whole of nature. The application of the scientific method is limited to independently observable, measurable events that can be reproduced. The scientific method is also applicable to random events that have statistical distributions. In atomic chemistry, for example, it is impossible to predict when one specific atom will decay and emit radiation, but it is possible to devise theories and formulas to predict when half of the atoms of a large sample will decay. Irreproducible results cannot be studied by the scientific method. There was one day when many car owners reported that the alarm systems of their cars were set off at about the same time without any apparent cause. Automotive engineers were not able to discover the reason because the problem could not be reproduced. They hypothesized that it could have been radio interference from a passing airplane, but they could not prove it one way or another. Mental conceptual experiences cannot be studied by the scientific method either. At this time there is no instrumentation that enables someone to monitor what anybody else conceives in their mind, although it is possible to determine which part of the brain is active during any given task. It is not possible to define experiments to determine objectively which works of art are great, or whether Picasso was better than Matisse. So-called miracles are also beyond the scientific method. A person has tumors and faces certain death, and then, the tumors start shrinking and the person becomes healthy. What brought about the remission? A change in diet? A change in mental attitude? It is impossible to go back in time to monitor all variables that could have caused the cure, and it would be unethical to plant new tumors into the person to try to reproduce the results for a more careful study. Critical Thinking The scientific method relies on critical thinking, which is the process of questioning common beliefs and explanations to distinguish those beliefs that are reasonable and logical from those which lack adequate evidence or rational foundation. Arguments consists of one or more premises and one conclusion. A premise is a statement that is offered in support of a claim being made. Premises and claims can be either true or false. In deductive arguments the premises provide complete support for the conclusion. If the premises provide the required degree of support for the conclusion then the argument is valid, and if all its premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. In inductive arguments the premises provide some degree of support for the conclusion. When the premises of inductive arguments are true, their conclusion is likely to be true. Arguments that have one or more false premises are unsound. Fallacies Arguments are subject to a variety of fallacies. A fallacy is an error in reasoning in which the premises given for the conclusion do not provide the needed degree of support. A deductive fallacy is a deductive argument where the premises are all true but reach a false conclusion. An inductive fallacy consist of arguments where the premises do not provide enough support for the conclusion. In such cases, even if the premises are true, the conclusion is not likely to be true. Common fallacies are categorized by their type, such as Ad Hominem (personal attack), and appeals to authority, belief, fear, ridicule, tradition, etc. An example of an Ad Hominem fallacy would be to say You do not understand this because you are American (or Chinese, etc. . The national origin of a person (the premise) has nothing to do with the conclusion that a person can understand something or not, therefore the argument is flawed. Appeals to ridicule are of the form: You would be stupid to believe that the earth goes around the sun. Sometimes, a naive or false justification may be added in appeals to ridicule, such as we can plainly see the sun go around the earth every day. Appe als to authority are of the form The president of the United States said this, therefore it must be true. The fact that a famous person, great person, or authority figure said something is not a valid basis for something being true. Truth is independent of who said it. Types of Evidence Evidence is something that provides proof concerning a matter in question. Direct or Experimental evidence. The scientific methods relies on direct evidence, i. e. , evidence that can be directly observed and tested. Scientific experiments are designed to be repeated by other scientists and to demonstrate unequivocably the point that they are trying to prove by controlling all the factors that could influence the results. A scientist conducts an experiment by varying a single factor and observing the results. When appropriate, double blind experiments are conducted to avoid the possibility of bias. If it is necessary to determine the effectiveness of a drug, an independent scientist will prepare the drug and an inert substance (a placebo), identifying them as A and B. A second scientist selects two groups of patients with similar characteristics (age, sex, etc. ), and not knowing which is the real drug, administers substance A to one group of patients and substance B to the second group of patients. By not knowing whether A or B is the real drug, the second scientist focuses on the results of the experiment and can make objective evaluations. At the end of the experiment, the second scientist should be able to tell whether the group receiving substance A showed improvements over those receiving substance B. If no effect can be shown, the drug being tested is ineffective. Neither the second scientist nor the patients can cheat by favoring one substance over another, because they do not know which is the real drug. Anecdotal, Correlational, or Circumstantial Evidence. Where there is smoke, there is fire is a popular saying. When two things occur together frequently, it is possible to assume that there is a direct or causative relationship between them, but it is also possible that there are other factors. For example, if you get sick every time that you eat fish and drink milk, you could assume that you are allergic to fish. However, you may be allergic to milk, or only to the com bination of fish with milk. Correlational evidence is good for developing hypotheses that can then be tested with the proper experiments, e. g. drink milk only, eat fish only, eat fish and milk together. There is nothing wrong with using representative cases to illustrate an inductive conclusion drawn from a fair sample. The problem arises when a single case or a few selected cases are used to draw a conclusion which would not be supported by a properly conducted study. Argumentative Evidence consists of evaluating facts that are known and formulating a hypothesis about what the facts imply. Argumentative evidence is notoriously unreliable because anybody can postulate a hypothesis about anything. This was illustrated above with the example about the channels of Mars implying intelligent life. The statement I heard a noise in the attic, it must be a ghost also falls in this category. Testimonial Evidence. A famous football player appears on television and says that Drug-XYZ provides relief from pain and works better than anything else. You know that the football player gets paid for making the commercial. How much can you trust this evidence? Not very much. Testimonials are often biased in favor of a particular point of view. In court proceedings, something actually experienced by a witness (eyewitness information) has greater weight than what someone told a witness (hearsay information). Nevertheless, experiments have repeatedly demonstrated that eyewitness accounts are highly unreliable when compared with films of the events. The statement I saw a ghost last night. is an example of testimonial evidence that probably cannot be verified and should not be trusted. On the other hand, the statement I saw a car crash yesterday. can be objectively verified to determine whether it is true or false by checking for debris from the accident, hospital records, and other physical evidence. Make full use of your senses. Making use of your senses is the subjective part of the Methodology. This is the stage where your special sensory skills can be put to use. If you have extraordinary hearing, use it. If you have a photographic memory make sure that it gets used for most of your problem solving. Nobody else has your s pecific impressions of your environment. Your point of view and your observations are unique. Part of using your senses may involve using instrumentation or interaction with others. Lucky charms, divining rods, and other magical devices that do not have reproducible and verifiable functionality do not count as instrumentation. If you dont have perfect eyesight and you need to see something clearly, use your glasses. Make observations from several points of view to get good depth perception and to confirm impressions. Take photographs if you need to remember something in great detail. Use a tape recorder or a notepad to record your observations for later review. Make sure that your senses are at their best by avoiding intoxicants that affect your perceptions. Interaction with others may involve using another being (not necessarily human) to make the observations for you. For example, a blind person may use a seeing-eye dog to get around, a truck driver may use directions from someone else when backing up into a tight spot, a hunter may use a dogs sense of smell for tracking game, or a miner may use a canary to warn him of pockets of unbreathable odorless gases. Whenever you trust someone elses perception more than your own you may find that the conclusions that you reach are unsatisfactory. How many hunters have been led astray by dogs that followed a rabbits trail rather than the foxs? And how many truck drivers have crashed while backing up because they misinterpreted their helpers signals? Reliance on your own senses is the only way to avoid such problems, but you dont always have this choice. The application of logic may be necessary to determine which perceptions you can trust. Let us say that you are not under the influence of any drugs and you see an apparition of a dead person, what should you do? How do you distinguish hallucinations from real perceptions? How do you know if your senses fool you or if your observations are real? One time-honored test is to pinch yourself to make sure that you are not dreaming. If you should tell someone else about your experience and they dont observe the same things, does this mean that you are crazy or that something is wrong with you? Or does this prove that you have more refined perception that enables you to see things that others do not see? What would it be like to live in a world where only you have color vision and everyone else is colorblind? The difference between real perceptions and hallucinations is that you can repeat and reproduce results from real perceptions but not from hallucinations. In a world where you are the only person with color vision, you would eventually be able to prove to everyone else by objective means that colors, or at least different frequencies of light, do exist.

Video game console Essay Example for Free

Video game console Essay I got my first video game console in the summer of 1991. My parents purchased it from SEARS for my birthday and at which point I had no idea what it was. A couple of the kids and their parents knew that it was and were shocked that my parents spend $100 dollars on something like that. It was still in the box until one afternoon I came home from school. I set it up in the living room, only room with a television. Popped in Super Mario Bros, this simple 8-bit game would change the entertainment industry. I did not become a fanboy until I attend Florida AM. Besides my classes and football schedule, I usually spend my free time in my apartment. One of my friends back home told me about Microsoft’s Xbox gave gamers the ability to play against each other and they did not need to be in the same living room. Walked into a Game Stop and walked out with my first console since the Nintendo my parents got me so many birthdays ago. Once at my apartment, plugged everything in and started playing. Completely different from what I remember when I was eight years ago. Xbox became my gateway drugs, from hours of study, from the beating my body would take from football and boredom. History of Sonys gaming console. Before Sony entered into the gaming industry they establish Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE) in mid-November of 1993. SCE main purpose was to handle production, RD (research and development) and the sale of both hardware and software for their video game consoles. This introduction took place a year before Sony launched their first video game console, Playstation. Playstation shipped to Japan first, in December of 94 and it was not until September 1995 when it shipped to the rest of the world. Playstation joined Nintendo 64 and Sega Saturn as the fifth generation of gaming consoles. Playstation sold for over nine years and sold over 100 million units worldwide, 2004 was the last year that Sony produced a Playstation. In 2000, SCE launched their second console, Playstation 2 (PS2). A decade later PS2 would be most popular console even well into the seventh generation console like Playstation 3 and Xbox 360. At their initial launch, PS2 only competition was Sega’s Dreamcast, which made $97 million on its release date. SCE closed the gap quick with PS2, which made $250 million on launch day. What helped a lot with the PS2 success was the console’s backward compatibility, gave gamers to play a lot of their favorite Playstation on their new PS2 and it was equipped with a DVD-player. With this feature, it helped expand SCE audience beyond their target audience, from the everyday gamers to someone wanting to upgrade their home entertainment system. With PS2 initial success and continue success, Sega’s Dreamcast had no room to grow and finally discontinuation in March of 2001. PS2 remaining the only console on the market for six months until the announcement of Nintendo’s GameCube and Microsoft’s Xbox. By this time, PS2 had huge advantage over the two, so to complete with both systems. SCE marked down their prices by $100. Towards the end of 2006, Playstation 3 (PS3) hit store shelves for the holiday season. This was the only console on the market that used a Blu-ray disc drive to run their software (games). With the launched of PS3, SCE introduced an answer to Microsofts Xbox Live online gaming service, Playstation Network (PSN) and it was free everyone. This system was also backward compatible with pervious Playstation games. SCE developed PSN to help Playstation gain ground with online gaming and downloadable content (DLC). What I liked about PSN was that it allowed it’s user to download the full game and gave the gamer a trail period of 60 minutes. This was a lot better than go out and spending $60 dollars on a game that would eventually turn into a paperweight. Last year SCE introduced their fourth installation of Playstation, Playstation 4 (PS4) and released a week before Microsoft’s Xbox One. PS4 only other competition is Nintendo’s Wii U. Nintendo since GameCube focused more on younger gamers because it could not keep up with the mature rating games that both Sony and Microsoft released. With Nintendo taking a back step, PS4 only real competition was Xbox One. Playstation 4 has not looked back since their launch date. By early February 2014 they have sold over five million units, compare to Xbox One three million units. History of Microsoft’s gaming console Late 2001 Microsoft took its first steps in the gaming industry. They announced their first gaming console to the world Xbox. Not since 1996 has, an American company offered a gaming console. By early 2002, Xbox completed with all of the sixth generation console Nintendos GameCube, Segas Dreamcast and Sonys Playstation 2. In all honestly, Microsoft only real threat was Sonys Playstation 2; as both consoles were designed for the advanced gamer. With the launch of Xbox, Microsoft also ventures into the world of online gaming, with their service Xbox Live. Unlike Sonys Playstation 2 and Segas Dreamcast, Xbox Live charged a fee to play online against players across the world and gave subscribers the ability to download gaming content to gamers. Like the other two consoles, gamers were required to have their own broadband connection. Before Xbox discontinued, it has sold 24 million units worldwide. Four later after the successful launch of Xbox, Microsoft introduced Xbox 360. With the success of Xbox and the video game industry entering its seventh generation gaming console, only three major players where left in this industry; Nintendo, Sony and Microsoft. Microsoft launched Xbox 360 with Xbox Live, as they did with Xbox. With the introduction of Xbox Live, not only did it change the way gamers played their game but also changed how the industry produce their games. Per Colin Moriarty, Senior Editor at IGN. com, he reported that by October of 2013 Xbox 360 has sold 80 million units and still climbing. With this success, it made Xbox 360 the seventh best gaming console, behind both Sonys Playstation and Sonys Playstation 2. This showed the video game industry that Microsoft, like Sony once before them, was a major player and was there for the long run. From its release date, Microsoft made sure to lock down exclusive titles and become the first with new downloadable content (DLC). Exclusive games like Halo and Gears of War, gamers were jumping ship and trading their Playstation consoles to purchase these titles. Then in 2009, Microsoft released and again shocked the gaming industry with the introduction of Kinect. This gave gamers a glimpse of the future for the industry. Unlike Nintendos Wii, Kinect was completely motion censored and voice commanded. This new accessory gave Xbox 360 new arsenal to complete with Nintendos Wii and Sonys Playstation 3 new Move project. Over ten years since the launch of Xbox, in late May 2013, Microsoft announced Xbox One was to follow Xbox 360. Later that year, in November, Microsoft launched their third gaming console. This is was also the beginning of the new generation of gaming consoles. Upon its conference at E3 2013, Xbox One took a lot criticized for its initial digital rights management policies (put restrictions on the resale and sharing between gamers); along with Kinect usage, requirements and a higher price tag than its competitors. Receiving a lot of criticism, Microsoft dropped all the restrictions before release November 21 2013. Microsoft’s Xbox One vs. Sony’s Playstation 4 @ E3 2013 Every year at E3 (Electronic Entertainment Expo) Microsoft, Nintendo and Sony hold a larger conference to display their new hardware or software. Microsoft announced that the Xbox One would launch in November 2013 and would retail at $499. They also announced the end of Microsoft Points and replaced by actual currency. Microsoft also announced a redesigned Xbox 360, available in stores immediately, which looks similar to the Xbox One. During the event did not spend any time discussing the hardware upgrades nor the policy on used games. A topic that was hurting Microsoft since they announced it earlier in the year. Priced at $499 putting Xbox One at the higher end of both consoles and this was because each console came with Microsoft’s Kinect accessory. SCE showed the world what the Playstation 4 would look like and priced at $399 in the US ($100 less than the Xbox One). SCE also discussed used games strategy and Sony announced there would be no DRM (Digital Rights Management) or protection on used PS4 games. They could also trade freely and play after initial purchase. Sony also announced that the PlayStation Plus subscription membership is now required for online gaming. 2013 let the console wars between Playstation and Xbox begin. Both consoles were release in November, giving PS4 a one-week (November 13) lead on Xbox One (November 21). At the end of 2013, the PS4 sold a little over four million units and Xbox One managed to sell over three million units. At the end of the console cycle, if Sony only managed to sell 1. 2 million more consoles than the Xbox One, Microsoft would be happy to take because it give them a tie. However, those sales come at the end of 2013 and only had about a month and a half in the shelves, and the figures would have always ended up somewhat similar due to the rush of pre-sales and limited stock. Now that the early rush is over and both consoles are easier to find, the January sales figures would be more telling regarding the popularity of the consoles. At this time, Microsoft has yet to release Xbox One in Japan and other European countries, with a release date sometime in late September 2014. What was Microsoft thinking? What is currently hurting Microsoft sells of Xbox One, are issues that they did not address at E3? The gaming community was not ready for the advance changes and radical ideas that Microsoft was trying to introduce. The public did not approve the idea of having to buy a game brand new. This idea was taking business away from a lot of video game store, big stores like GameStop and smaller privately own stores. This was also going to restrict gamers to lend games to each other. Sony just sat back and watched how Microsoft’s ideas fail. The gaming community turned away from those ideas. These ideas and plans were the cause of many people canceling their pre-order of the new system, even hardcore Xbox fans were jumping ship. Microsoft went into damage control before launch date. All the systems were to be updated before release and updated patches were uploaded on launch day. Consoles: Xbox Xbox 360 Xbox 360 w/ Kinect Xbox One Playstation Playstation 2 and Playstation 2 Slim Playstation 3 slim and Playstation 3 1st edition Playstation 4 References: Microsoft Confirms Next-Gen Xbox Announcement. IGN. April 24, 2013. Retrieved April 24, 2013. Xbox One ignites a new era of games and entertainment this November. Microsoft. June 10, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2013. Retailers Sell Out of Initial Xbox 360 Shipments. Retrieved October 14, 2008.EXCLUSIVE: Xbox One Confirmed as Name of Microsofts New Console. Retrieved May 7, 2013. Microsoft: Kinect SDK Coming In March. Gadgetsteria. com. February 21, 2011. Retrieved March 16, 2011. New PS3 has sold over one million. Eurogamer. Retrieved November 7, 2009. â€Å"PlayStation 2 Breaks Record as the Fastest Computer Entertainment Platform to Reach Cumulative Shipment of 100 Million Units (PDF) (Press release). Sony Computer Entertainment. November 30, 2005. Retrieved June 8, 2008. â€Å"PlayStation 2 manufacture ends after 12 years. The Guardian. January 4, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2013.

Marxist Theories of Punishment

Marxist Theories of Punishment The application of punishment is determined by the class system. Critically discuss this with reference to Marxist theories of Punishment. This essay is going to critically discuss with reference to Marxists theories of punishment whether the application of punishment is determined by the class system. In order to do this we first need an understanding of what Marxist theory is based on, how Marx differentiates the class system and how punishment fits in to his theory. At the time of Karl Marx’s work, he had witnessed many revolutions across Western Europe. Marxism tried to get people to understand the society they lived in and whilst he did only a minuscule amount of work on actual crime and criminals, he did acknowledge that there was conflict within society (History Learning Site, 2010). He recognised there was a split in society between the wealthiest and the poor. One of Marx’s main focus’ in his theory was the economy and he believed those who had wealth were the powerful and those who were poorer were the powerless. By the start of the industrial era Marx believed society to be split between two economic classes. The poorer end of society known as the ‘proletariat’ which is also known to be the working-class, and the ruling-class he described as being a more dominant class, called the ‘bourgeoisie’; these were owners of wealth that did not need to work. The control and owning of private property by the wealthiest (which was the start of Capitalism) and the exploitation of labour done by the working class was his main idea in his theory on the conflict of classes. â€Å"Marx saw conflict in society as being due to a scarcity of resources and a historical inequality in the distribution of those resources, notably power.† (Williams and McShane, 2010; 134). Marxists criminologists suggest that class struggle affects crime in three different positions. Firstly, they suggest that law is a tool used by the ruling class to control the working class. They believe that is why there is no law enforcement for the ruling class (Michalowski and Bohlander, 1976 cited in Williams and McShane, 1988: 135), they said that behaviour that is not placed under any law but instead placed under just administrative and governing laws can only be to protect themselves. Marxist think law is an abuse to general human rights and they also question the power of the law and it purpose in its application, if the working class are policing the working class (Schwendinger and Schwendinger, 1970, 1972, 1977; Platt, 1974 cited in Williams and McShane, 2010). Secondly, Marxist’s see all crime in a capitalist society as a product of class struggle. It causes the working class the need to chase to get ahead which can manifest itself it to criminal behaviour. The di vide between these two classes and the conflict, creates competition. Someone will want something and when they feel there is no other way of achieving this, criminal activity can take place (Bohm, 1982 as cited in Williams and McShane, 2010). This can be seen in Emilie Durkheim’s Anomie theory. There are other theories that also recognise a division in society. Emilie Durkheim’s anomie theory also recognised the division in society and in his book termed it as the division in labour. He studied Europe after the industrial revolution and Durkheim saw from forced industrialisation and commercialisation, a large economic crisis could define factors of causing a state of anomie. He described this as a breakdown of social norms for the working class. He stated without clear rules to guide the working class, individuals find it hard to find a place in society. He concludes that this in turn causes dissatisfaction, frustration, conflict and deviance. Durkheim’s anomie theory looks at social norms in society being broken while Merton’s Strain theory (1938) looks more at deviance who also refers to bureaucratic behaviour as well as criminal behaviour in his theory. In Merton’s theory he saw certain goals emphasised through society and used financial succe ss as an example. He said not everyone has equal access to these financial achievements or success and that some people may look for illegitimate ways to gain this success. Because of this social inequality and division in society between the working class and ruling class, he believes that certain goals are just not available for certain groups within society such as the lower social class. Merton’s anomie theory is often referred to as strain theory as this lower or working class feel a strain to achieve illegitimately ways to gain this success and those groups with the least access to achieve these goals have higher crime and deviance rates according to Merton. In his study of US societies that these higher rates of crime were amongst the lower classes (Williams and McShane, 1988: 79-83). These theories of anomie and strain theory all take the same direction as Marxist theory in that they believe there to be a division in society between working class and the ruling class. With the ruling class holding the most power and the working class trying to achieve this. The power held by the dominant class has also been termed ‘cultural capital’ (Giddens, ). Marxism influences cultural capital. Pierre Bourdieu another sociologist influenced by Marx argues that it is the education system, to blame for the failure of the working class, not the working class culture. He referred to the cultural capital as those who were in possession of the dominant culture and thought this could be translated in to wealth and power through the education system. He claimed that cultural capital in class structure was not evenly proportionate and he could see this in the class structure through the disparities in education attainment achieved by those of different classes. Bourdieu claims that middle class students succeed better than those of the working class as they are the dominant culture. He states that education attainment is directly related to those who possess the most cultural capital (Giddens – Sociology). Gramsci was a Marxist thinker in the 20th century whose work evaluated culture and political leadership. He believed that the bourgeoisie uphold control, that they developed a hegemonic culture which he saw transmitted its own set of norms and values that just became common sense values and norms of everyone. People from classes outside the ruling class acknowledged their own good with the good of the ruling class. Marxism always expected a revolution in capitalist societies but by early 20th century no revolution had occurred in such advanced countries. Gramsci’s theory suggested that capitalism maintained control not just through political and economic coercion, but also through ideology as well. (Perry Anderson, 1976. (The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci. New Left Review). SENTENCE TO WRAP IT UP Marxism saw the creation of two different groups that were created through the rise of capitalism; the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat) and he claimed that these two classes offered nothing but â€Å"new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of old ones†. They saw that the labour of the working class needed to be exploited in order for the ruling class to gain more capital. Marxism referred to this as oppression and believed that the ruling class exercised their power over the working class in order to control them. Rusche (1980) took the same approach in his theory of punishment and social structure. He states that when wages go up because of the lack of labour that this in turn causes the ruling class to apply their power to supply the need for cheap labour. Rusche saw that the exploitation of prison labour began to be the preferred method over previous methods such as corporal and capital punishment. He claims that â€Å"When a labour surplus occurs, wages go down causing a mass unemployment resulting in extremely high penalties, such as corporal and capital punishment executed in a torturous fashion. This is thought to be needed in order to keep crime down† (Rusche, 1980:). During the industrial era the ruling class turned prisons in to workhouses which were named the house of correction. These were set up in a bid to help supply their need for cheap labour. The house of correction’s main aim and focus was there to make those that didn’t want to work and was unwilling to work, to make them work. Rusche and Kircheimer (1939) claimed that by being forced to work within this institution that the prisoners would pick up skills in the hope that they could take with them to the labour market on release. During period where labour was in excess, and the attitude changed toward the poor, it became unprofitable to force people to work and prisons became warehouses for people that he also claimed cost money. He also claimed that the attitudes towards punishment need to change when the living conditions of the working class began to get worst. In order to see that people were being punished according the conditions of the prison had to be worse than those of the prisoners conditions on the out side of prison. As Jenner (2014) stated â€Å"the conditions need to be markedly more unpleasant than the conditions of life experienced by those of the lowest strata living free in society†. This of course, had economic advantages, less food was needed and no medical assistance offered, but it came to be seen that the living conditions of the working class, did not ‘vary’ much, from those of the prison. This caused the conditions to deteriorate even worst in an attempt to deter the working class not to end up inside the prison (Rusche and Kirchiemer, 1939). Evidence to support these theories that prison is a way of controlling the working class by the ruling class can be seen in the inequalities of the prison population. According to a report by NACRO (1997a; 1997b) England and Wales have one of the highest prison populations in Western Europe which in 1997 was as high as 61,000. They reckoned this figure could rise by the year 2005 to 82,000. A national survey done by the Home Office carried out on prison population in 1991 showed that it was made up by uneducated young men, many whom had an ethnic minority background. His study found some interested figures in evidence of the theories that have been presented in this essay. This study found that 40% of the prison population to be under 25 but over 18 compared to 16% of the general population; this shows there is a huge over representation of young men between 18-25 years old, imprisoned. It found that 41% of prisoners either posed no skills or had very little, compared to 18% of the g eneral population; again a large over representation of unskilled labour force. This study also found that 15% of prisoners were from Black or Asian ethnic minorities yet these minorities only make up 5% of the general population. 40% of prisoners under the age of 25 had left school before they were supposed to, compared with only 11% of the general population. 38% of prisoners under 21 had experienced being in care whilst only 2% of the general population experience this and 13% said they did not have a place to live before they entered the prison system (Walmsley et al., 1992 cited in NACRO, 1997b). From these figures and our knowledge of Marxism with regards to class struggle and the segregation of the lower class, how the ruling class exert their power over the working class and how they use this power to control, we can see that the prison has been used in the same way. That it is a mere control of the bourgeoisie bid to control the working class. This can also be seen in the a pplication of law and how the bourgeoisie wrong doings do not fall under any law but as mentioned earlier fall under administrative and governing laws in order to protect their own. This could also be argued in the case of why white collar crime does not get much attention paid to it over criminal law. REFERENCES Anderson, P. (1976) The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci. New Left Review. Bohm, R.M. (1982) Radical Criminology: An explanation. Criminology, 19, 565-589. Giddens – Sociology). History Learning Site (2010) Marxism and Crime [online] available at. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/marxism_crime.htm accessed on. (20th Feb 2014). Jenner, A. (2014) Assessment Workshop [SC6001 Justice, Punishment and Social Control]. 27th February, 2014. Maguire, M., Morgan, R. Reiner, R. (2007) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (4th edt), University Press: Oxford. Merton, R. K. (1938) Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3, 672-682. Michalowski, R. J. Bohlander, E. W. (1976) Repression and criminal justice in capitalist America, Sociological Inquiry, 46, 95-106. NACRO (1997a) Information Bulletin, An occasional briefing compiled by NACROS Youth Crime Section, Issue 7, NACRO: London. NACRO (1997b) Criminal Justice Digest. No. 91, February, NACRO: London. Platt, T. (1974) Prospects for a radical criminology in the United States. Crime and Social Justice, 1, 2-6. Rusche, G. (1980) Labour Market and Penal Sanctions: Thoughts on the Sociology of Criminal Justice. In T. Platt, Takahi, P. (Edts.), Punishment and Penal Discipline (pp 10-16). Berkeley, CA: Crime and Social Justice Associates. Rusche, G. Kirchiemer, O. (1939). Punishment and Social Structure. New York: Russell Russell. Schwendinger H. Schwendinger, J. (1970) Defenders of order or guardians of human rights? Issues in Criminology, 5, 113-146. Schwendinger H. Schwendinger, J. (1972) The continuing debate on the legalistic approach to the definition of crime. Issues in Criminology, 7, 71-81. Schwendinger H. Schwendinger, J. (1977) Social class and the definition of crime. Crime and Social Justice, 7, 71-81. Walmsley, R., Howard, L and White, S. (1992) The National Prison Survey 1991 main findings. A Home Office Research and Planning Unit Report, HMSO: London. Williams, F. P. and McShane, M. D. (2010) Criminological Theory (5th edt), Pearson: London.

HP CD Burner Lawsuit :: GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

HP CD Burner Lawsuit Hewlett-Packard Hits Legal Snag Over Its CD Burners in Germany Compact Disk burners have been a controversial product for the last several years because of there ability for making â€Å"pirating† of computer software and music CD’s a very easy operation. The Hewlett-Packard Corporation has become the first major company to be attacked by the German Law which requires firms to pay fee’s for making CD burners which in turn can be used for pirating music CD’s from music illegally downloaded from the internet. The music Industry estimated that approximately five billion dollars in sales revenue was lost last year due to the pirating of music CD’s. Many other European countries have laws similar to Germany’s that are meant to protect the authors and musicians legal ownership of their work by punishing the people who create the equipment used to carry out pirating activities. Although a problem is that these laws were created quite sometime ago and were aimed at such things as tape recorders and video players. Germany’s lawsuit against HP is the first time we have seen these older laws being put against modern day technology. What needs to be examined in this case is the distinct difference that this new pirating has. Unlike the past the majority of the pirated CD’s are created for personal use and not sold on the black market. People are downloading music from such programs as the infamous Napster and creating their own CD’s, which results in a zero profit for the music industry. HP was ordered by the German government to pay a fee of 30 marks or $12.

Encounters in Enemies and Recognition :: Enemies Recognition Essays

Encounters in Enemies and Recognition An encounter is an unexpected meeting, and we see the leading characters in ‘Enemies’ and ‘Recognition’ having to come to terms with their past and as their encounters occur we see their changing perspective about certain issues surrounding them and how their characters develop from what they are to what they become. In ‘Enemies’ we see this being exercised upon by the leading character Mrs Clara Hansen. The title of the story ‘Enemies’ is in itself a description of what Mrs Hansen has become to her true self, an enemy. A common definition or rather characteristic associated with an enemy is one who hates and opposes and enemies usually in the general context fight a war or battle with another. Mrs Hansen fulfills this definition of what makes an enemy through her struggle within her confrontation between what she has become and who she truly is. In the opening pages we are given a description of Mrs Hansen as keeping to herself when she travels and this is justified by her having money, been a baroness, a beauty, and has survived dramatic suffering. This description of her conveys a picture of her as a very proud woman who has suffered and worked hard to get where she is. She is also described as having â€Å"The crushing presence of these states in her face and bearing is nearly always enough to stop loose mouths of the people who find themselves in her company.† This description of her conveys the amount of influence she has upon people and she may assume some level of control upon their behaviour. The people who do not behave in accordance in her presence, those who assail her face are referred to as either stupid, senile or self obsessed, hence, saying that one would not be normal not to do the latter in her presence. â€Å"Withdrawn as a castle†, this being a statement giving her a high status especially when used as a simile against a castle, actually making her seem like a queen and very uncommon unlike the ordinary man, and this is the perception that she has of herself. Her relationship with Alfred is that of master and servant with her being the dominant power. The fact that she was dominant over a male servant, even though there was general oppression against all blacks in the apartheid era, is an inverse upon the social norm of sexism, we actually do not see her beneath the authority of any male within the whole story. Encounters in Enemies and Recognition :: Enemies Recognition Essays Encounters in Enemies and Recognition An encounter is an unexpected meeting, and we see the leading characters in ‘Enemies’ and ‘Recognition’ having to come to terms with their past and as their encounters occur we see their changing perspective about certain issues surrounding them and how their characters develop from what they are to what they become. In ‘Enemies’ we see this being exercised upon by the leading character Mrs Clara Hansen. The title of the story ‘Enemies’ is in itself a description of what Mrs Hansen has become to her true self, an enemy. A common definition or rather characteristic associated with an enemy is one who hates and opposes and enemies usually in the general context fight a war or battle with another. Mrs Hansen fulfills this definition of what makes an enemy through her struggle within her confrontation between what she has become and who she truly is. In the opening pages we are given a description of Mrs Hansen as keeping to herself when she travels and this is justified by her having money, been a baroness, a beauty, and has survived dramatic suffering. This description of her conveys a picture of her as a very proud woman who has suffered and worked hard to get where she is. She is also described as having â€Å"The crushing presence of these states in her face and bearing is nearly always enough to stop loose mouths of the people who find themselves in her company.† This description of her conveys the amount of influence she has upon people and she may assume some level of control upon their behaviour. The people who do not behave in accordance in her presence, those who assail her face are referred to as either stupid, senile or self obsessed, hence, saying that one would not be normal not to do the latter in her presence. â€Å"Withdrawn as a castle†, this being a statement giving her a high status especially when used as a simile against a castle, actually making her seem like a queen and very uncommon unlike the ordinary man, and this is the perception that she has of herself. Her relationship with Alfred is that of master and servant with her being the dominant power. The fact that she was dominant over a male servant, even though there was general oppression against all blacks in the apartheid era, is an inverse upon the social norm of sexism, we actually do not see her beneath the authority of any male within the whole story.

Possible application of the transferable development right mechanism

Possible application of the movable development right mechanism: The construct of movable development rights had originated in the USA, where it has been used for private land acquisition by the State for assorted non-commercial intents such as protecting environmentally sensitive countries. In its present signifier in India, movable development rights have been used as a tool for private land acquisition to build societal comfortss. During the last 10 old ages, the Indian Government had applied this policy to get land for public usage for non-commercial purposes28. The Government of India had had a policy to O.K. development programs for all large metropoliss, while land countries for building of public comfortss such as roads, schools, infirmaries, unfastened infinites, etc. have in private ownership. The pecuniary compensation has excessively expensive and impractical. This state of affairs in India has similar to drawn-out urban route undertakings in Vietnam where the compensation cost has reached 80 % of the entire cost of the undertaking. Apart from the fiscal facets, these undertakings ever have faced resistance from the population. In some large metropoliss of India, another mechanism for compensation, the Transferable Development Right had granted on lands have reserved for unfastened infinite, roads, comfortss and public Peoples with movable development rights have had the right to build houses on their remaining land after a portion had been acquired by the city’s authorization, or in other land which has had higher value, or to reassign the movable development rights to other people. In the Mumbai in India, people whose lands have been converted to public usage could take to have pecuniary compensation or movable development rights. The movable development rights had been granted in the signifier of the Development Rights Certificates. The Transferable development rights have a monetary value, depending on the â€Å"supply-demand† in the building market. It may be transferred to people, but it may non be mortgaged at the Bankss. The issue of Development Rights Certificates has to make a movable development rights market, which has had certain impacts on existent estate market, the land market, urban development market and the procedure of land transition for urban development. Puting up the movable development rights market has a appropriate manner to assist implement the planned aims of development with low compensation costs. It has besides created an easy manner to develop public substructure and has helped people capable to lands reserve for public usage to do perchance more money from the movable development rights market. In Vietnam, a mechanism to publish movable development rights’s demands to be carefully studied before a possible pilot strategy has been implemented in a selected metropolis. Application of the theoretical account could be decided after successful pilot surveies. In Vietnam, the construction of the value of land has different from that in other states. In some states, there has no difference between planned and unplanned land, but at that place has a difference between land with development rights and land without them. For illustration, the value of a movable development rights in India has the difference in the value of land between agricultural land and non-agricultural land in Vietnam. This has showed the practical troubles in application of the movable development rights in Vietnam. However, an in deepness survey of movable development rights should to be undertaken together with a survey of why agricultural land monetary values have increased aggressively after an administrative determination has been made to change over the land to non-agricultural land. movable development rights can hold another signifier of application in Vietnam. The Chinese theoretical account of land transition has similar to the execution of industrial zone building in Vietnam. In the first phase, land for non-agricultural development has been designated on the footing of sanctioned land usage programs prepared for land recovery from current land-users and for allotment to investors. In the 2nd phase, requisition of the land from agricultural collectives has been undertaken through administrative powers with payment of compensation in hard currency or sort. In the 3rd phase, substructure investors have received the land and have prepared substructure such as roads, grading, power, sewag e, H2O, environmental and webs, treating systems. The sites have so leased or transferred to industrial or service investors via direct dialogue, a command procedure, or land auctions. The difference between the theoretical accounts of the two states has in the 2nd phase. The land in China has been recovered from agricultural collectives and in Vietnam the land has been recovered from families or persons. In Vietnam, the State allocates or rentals land non merely for large undertakings utilizing common substructure, but besides straight for undertakings of service nature or an industrial after direct choice of the investors or by land auction or undertaking command together with land usage. The lessons have learned from the Chinese experiences have to happen a suited bound for application of mandatory land acquisition. This system may be applied to large undertakings which require a primary investor for readying of the common substructure have been followed by the primary investor leasing or reassigning the sites to industrial or service investors via direct dialogue, offering procedure or land auctions. The Korean theoretical account of land transition has had some points that can be considered for application in Vietnam. In Korea, the Government has established land districting programs for industrial and residential countries which have been so developed through land readjustment strategies. The undertaking costs and net incomes have been shared among some secret plans and the landholders have been given back to landholders. The Korea Land Cooperation has been allowed to implement urban development plans ; this organisation has similar to the Land development organisation in Vietnam. This mechanism has allowed people to recapture most of the undertaking benefits and to supply inexpensive service sites to building companies. Under the Urban Development Law ( 1999 ) , private developers have been permitted to suggest urban development undertakings every bit long as they have obtained blessing from two tierces of the landholders. In Vietnam, betterment of the Land development organisations could be considered to reform the compulsory land transition system. Some facets of the land monetary value assessment process piloted in Ho Chi Minh City The People’s Committee of Ho Chi Minh City have decided to use the process of land monetary value appraisal to specify the market-based monetary value of land to find land value and compensation. The land monetary value appraisal service has been supplied largely by the Southern Centre for Consulting and Price Assessment Services ( Ministry of Finance ) and the Centre for Price Assessment of the Ho Chi Minh City ( Department of Finance, Ho Chi Minh City ) . In an interview with the first Centre, the manager noted: †¢ The land monetary value rating procedure has an nonsubjective agencies to help in making consensus between State organic structures and has affected people. †¢ The legal method for agricultural land rating has based on income from agricultural production has non been aligned with the market monetary value of agricultural land. †¢ Application of the legal method for non-agriculture land rating for undertaking investing have based on the comparing of the land with other similar land brushs troubles in happening similar land with a similar investing potency. †¢ There have no market based land monetary value databases for application of the comparing method to non-agriculture land monetary value appraisal. †¢ Affected people are utilizing the public services of land rating but there have no ordinances on the declaration of land monetary value differences. The land monetary value appraisal process for land compensation and relocation should be developed for application in all states. To explicate a suited legal model, several surveies and pilot activities have been needed. Apart from the legal facets, the building of a land monetary value database should be undertaken as shortly as possible. The Land Law 1987, the 2nd session of National Assembly VII has adopted this Law on December 29, 1987 and it came into consequence on January 1st, 1988. This jurisprudence has consisted of 6 chapters and 57 articles have constructed on the footing of the State-subsidized theoretical account on land. The chief contents item land allotment by the State for the usage of organisations, families and persons ; the land direction system ; the system of land usage for wood land, agricultural production land, land for particular utilizations and fresh land, residential land ; the rights and duties of the land-users ; and the system of land usage for foreign organisations and persons. This jurisprudence had had merely three articles modulating the land transition system with the undermentioned content: ( I ) The State recovers land when the land would be used for the intent of the State or public involvement ; ( two ) Those who has used agricultural and forestry land have been allocated by the State who has wished to change over this land to industrial and service intents may pay land compensation to the State and so this compensation would be used to develop the resources of the land ; ( three ) If the current land user has non continued to necessitate usage of the land, the State woull recover the land to apportion to others and the current the land user would be compensated for belongings on the land ; ( four ) If the land in current usage has been recovered by the State to utilize for the intents of the State or public involvement, the current land-user will be compensated for losingss and allocated with other land. Harmonizing to these ordinances, the land users have received land allocated by the State to utilize, but had no had belongings rights on that land every bit good as no land dealing rights. The land-user merely has had ownership of the belongings on the land in which they has already invested. Land transition has been carried out under the compulsory mechanisms decided by the State. The Government’s Decreessteering execution of the Land Law 1993, the Law of 1998 on amendment and supplementation of the Land Law, the 2001 Law on amendment and supplementation of the Land Law and the two regulations on rights and duties of organisations utilizing land. During the cogency of the Land Law 1993 ( 15th October, 1993 – 1st July, 2004 ) , the Vietnam Government had issued 30 edicts including 3 edicts on general land direction ; on revenue enhancement on land usage are 4 and transferred of land usage rights ; on land enrollment are 3 ; on land monetary values are 7, land usage fees, land rental and cadastral charges ; on land compensation on land recovery by the State are 2 ; and on land rental and system of land usage for all land classs and land allotment by the State and, rights and duties of land-users are 13 edicts. Among the edicts steering execution of the Land Law, there have 3 groups of edicts that dealt with land transition mechanisms. These have the group of edicts on compensation on the State’s recovery of land ( associating to mandatory land transition ) . The group of edicts on the land leased and allocated by the State, government of land usage for all land classs, rights and duties of land-users ( associating to voluntary land transition ) ; and the group of edicts on land monetary values, land usage fees, land lease ( associating to both land transition systems ) . These edicts specifically include: †¢ Decree No. 90-CPof 17th August, 1994 stipulates compensation for losingss caused by the State’s recovery of land for usage in intents of national defence, security and national and public involvements. The compensation rule is that compensation for losingss in land would be made through the allotment of new land in the same class as the land had been recovered. If the State could non happen other land for allotment or the individual whose land has been recovered does non bespeak compensation in land, a payment would be made with the value calculated on the footing of the land monetary value has announced by the provincial people’s commission in conformity with the model of land monetary values have stipulated by the Government in Decree No. 87-CP dated 17th August, 1994. All belongings have associated with the land would be compensated for by a sum equivalent to the bing value of the belongings at the standard monetary value has set by the State. This edict has non stipulated support for residential remotion, work break and new occupation preparation, etc ; neither does it qualify the relocation mechanism, but chiefly compensation in hard currency to help with the building of a new abode. †¢ Decree No. 22/1998/ND-CPof 24th April, 1998 on compensation for losingss when the State recovers land to utilize for the intents of national defence, security and national and public involvement. This Decree replaced Decree No. 90-CP of 17th August, 1994. The land monetary value has used to cipher compensation in this Decree has been decided by the metropolis people’s commission multiplied by a coefficient in order to guarantee compatibility with the monetary value of land usage rights on the market. The individual capable to recovery of residential land had been compensated for the land country at the degree determined by the provincial people’s commission. Properties associated with the cured land had been compensated by a sum equivalent to the bing value of these belongingss plus a amount stand foring a per centum of the bing value of the belongingss. However, the sum of the belongings compensation may non be higher than 100 % and non lower than 60 % of the original value of the belongings. This Decree have besides stipulated the support for people whose land has been recovered, such as support for disrupted productiveness and stableness, remotion and new occupation preparation. The edict particularly has stipulated the building of relocation locations and delegating residential land to families in the relocation location. †¢ Decree No. 11-CPof 24th January, 1995 on have detailed commissariats for execution of the regulation on duties of foreign organisations, the rights and persons utilizing land had leased by the State. This edict have stipulated the elaborate commissariats for the ways in which the State may rent land to foreign organisations and persons and the rights of foreign land-users as in the Regulation on the rights and duties of foreign organisations and persons utilizing land leased by the State in Vietnam. †¢ Decree No. 18-CPof 13th February, 1995 on has detailed commissariats for execution of the Regulation on the rights and duties of domestic organisations utilizing land leased and allocated by the State. This Decree has stipulated the elaborate commissariats for the State’s allotment of land without a land usage fee and the State’s leasing of land and rights applicable to domestic land-users as mentioned in the Ordinance on rights and duties of domestic organisations utilizing land leased and allocated by the State. The Decree particularly focuses on the right to mortgage land usage rights and land usage rights as a part as capital. †¢ Decree No. 85-CPof 17th December, 1996 on commissariats for execution of the Regulation on the rights and duties of domestic organisations utilizing land leased and allocated by the State. This Decree is rather similar to Decree No. 18-CP of 13th February, 1995. It has stipulated the elaborate commissariats for the State’s allotment of land with a land usage fee as mentioned in the Regulation on amendment and supplementation of on rights and duties of domestic organisations utilizing land have been leased and the Ordinance on rights and have been allocated by the State. †¢ Decree No. 04/2000/ND-CPof 11th February, 2000 on implementing the Law on amendment and supplementation of the Land Law in 1998. This Decree has guided the execution of the Law which clarifies the State’s allotment of land with and without a land usage fee, the State’s leasing of land with a individual payment or one-year payment and land usage right transportation, rental and part as capital between domestic economic organisations, families, persons. The Decree has besides stipulated elaborate ordinances on the rights of land dealing made by land users. †¢ Decree No. 87-CPof 17th August, 1994 on the model of land monetary values for all classs of land. This Decree has stipulated the model of land monetary values ( lowest to highest monetary values ) for all classs of land. On this footing the provincial people’s commission has issued a land monetary value tabular array for every land location. The model of land monetary values in this Decree has much lower than the monetary value of land usage rights transportation on the market ( 10 % to 30 % ) . The Decree has besides allowed the usage of a coefficient runing from 0.8 to 1.2, by which the land monetary value would be multiplied to guarantee compatibility with the specific substructure conditions of urban land. After lupus erythematosus than a twelvemonth of execution, the Prime Minister had issued Decision No. 302 – TTg of 13th May, 1996 to set the coefficient from 0.5 to 1.8. †¢ Decree No. 17/1998/ND-CPof 21st March, 1998 on amendment and supplementation of Item 2 Article 4 of Decree No. 87-CP of 17th August, 1994 on the model of land monetary values for all classs of land. After 3 old ages of implementing Decree No. 87-CP of 17th of August, 1994, the Government had adjusted the model of land monetary values so that the lowest monetary value may be reduced by 50 % and the highest monetary value may be increased by 50 % .